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Home / After Many Billions of Years All the Matter and Energy Will Once Again Be Packed Into a Small Area

After Many Billions of Years All the Matter and Energy Will Once Again Be Packed Into a Small Area

Future scenario bold that the expansion of the universe may continue forever, or achieve a point at which it begins to contract.

Almost observations suggest that the expansion of the universe will continue forever. The prevailing theory is that the universe volition cool as it expands, eventually becoming too cold to sustain life. For this reason, this hereafter scenario once popularly chosen "Estrus Decease" is now known equally the "Large Chill" or "Big Freeze".[1] [ii]

If dark energy—represented by the cosmological constant, a constant energy density filling infinite homogeneously,[three] or scalar fields, such as quintessence or moduli, dynamic quantities whose energy density tin can vary in time and infinite—accelerates the expansion of the universe, then the space between clusters of galaxies volition abound at an increasing charge per unit. Redshift will stretch aboriginal, incoming photons (fifty-fifty gamma rays) to undetectably long wavelengths and low energies.[4] Stars are expected to course usually for 1012 to ten14 (1–100 trillion) years, only eventually the supply of gas needed for star formation volition exist exhausted. As existing stars run out of fuel and cease to shine, the universe will slowly and inexorably grow darker.[v] [6] Co-ordinate to theories that predict proton decay, the stellar remnants left behind volition disappear, leaving behind simply black holes, which themselves eventually disappear as they emit Hawking radiation.[7] Ultimately, if the universe reaches thermodynamic equilibrium, a state in which the temperature approaches a uniform value, no further work will be possible, resulting in a final heat death of the universe.[eight]

Cosmology [edit]

Space expansion does not determine the overall spatial curvature of the universe. It tin can be open (with negative spatial curvature), apartment, or closed (positive spatial curvature), although if information technology is airtight, sufficient nighttime energy must be nowadays to annul the gravitational forces or else the universe will stop in a Big Crunch.[nine]

Observations of the cosmic background radiations by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe and the Planck mission advise that the universe is spatially flat and has a pregnant amount of dark free energy.[ten] [xi] In this case, the universe should continue to expand at an accelerating charge per unit. The acceleration of the universe's expansion has likewise been confirmed by observations of afar supernovae.[ix] If, as in the concordance model of physical cosmology (Lambda-cold nighttime affair or ΛCDM), dark energy is in the form of a cosmological abiding, the expansion will eventually become exponential, with the size of the universe doubling at a constant rate.

If the theory of inflation is true, the universe went through an episode dominated past a different class of nighttime energy in the outset moments of the Big Blindside; but inflation concluded, indicating an equation of country much more complicated than those assumed and then far for present-day dark energy. It is possible that the dark free energy equation of state could modify again resulting in an result that would have consequences which are extremely difficult to parametrize or predict.[ commendation needed ]

Future history [edit]

In the 1970s, the futurity of an expanding universe was studied past the astrophysicist Jamal Islam[12] and the physicist Freeman Dyson.[13] Then, in their 1999 book The Five Ages of the Universe, the astrophysicists Fred Adams and Gregory Laughlin divided the by and time to come history of an expanding universe into five eras. The start, the Primordial Era, is the time in the by just after the Big Bang when stars had not notwithstanding formed. The 2d, the Stelliferous Era, includes the present day and all of the stars and galaxies now seen. It is the time during which stars class from collapsing clouds of gas. In the subsequent Degenerate Era, the stars will have burnt out, leaving all stellar-mass objects as stellar remnants—white dwarfs, neutron stars, and blackness holes. In the Black Pigsty Era, white dwarfs, neutron stars, and other smaller astronomical objects have been destroyed by proton decay, leaving merely black holes. Finally, in the Nighttime Era, even black holes have disappeared, leaving just a dilute gas of photons and leptons.[14]

This hereafter history and the timeline beneath assume the continued expansion of the universe. If space in the universe begins to contract, subsequent events in the timeline may not occur considering the Big Crunch, the collapse of the universe into a hot, dense country similar to that after the Big Bang, will supervene.[14] [xv]

Timeline [edit]

The Stelliferous Era [edit]

From the present to about ten 14 (100 trillion) years after the Large Blindside

The observable universe is currently 1.38×ten x (13.8 billion) years quondam.[xvi] This time is in the Stelliferous Era. About 155 one thousand thousand years after the Big Bang, the first star formed. Since then, stars have formed by the plummet of small, dense core regions in large, cold molecular clouds of hydrogen gas. At kickoff, this produces a protostar, which is hot and bright because of energy generated by gravitational contraction. Later the protostar contracts for a while, its core could become hot enough to fuse hydrogen, if it exceeds critical mass, a process called 'stellar ignition', and its lifetime equally a star will properly begin.[14]

Stars of very depression mass will eventually exhaust all their fusible hydrogen then become helium white dwarfs.[17] Stars of depression to medium mass, such as our own sun, will expel some of their mass as a planetary nebula and eventually become white dwarfs; more than massive stars will explode in a cadre-collapse supernova, leaving behind neutron stars or black holes.[xviii] In whatsoever case, although some of the star'south matter may be returned to the interstellar medium, a degenerate remnant will be left behind whose mass is not returned to the interstellar medium. Therefore, the supply of gas available for star formation is steadily being exhausted.

Milky Style Galaxy and the Andromeda Galaxy merge into i [edit]

4–8 billion years from now (17.8 – 21.8 billion years after the Big Bang)

The Andromeda Galaxy is currently approximately two.5 meg low-cal years abroad from our galaxy, the Galaxy Galaxy, and they are moving towards each other at approximately 300 kilometers (186 miles) per 2nd. Approximately five billion years from now, or 19 billion years after the Large Bang, the Milky way and the Andromeda Galaxy will collide with one another and merge into one big galaxy based on current testify (see, Andromeda–Milky way standoff. Upwardly until 2012, at that place was no mode to ostend whether the possible collision was going to happen or not.[nineteen] In 2012, researchers came to the conclusion that the collision is definite later on using the Hubble Infinite Telescope between 2002 and 2010 to runway the movement of Andromeda.[20] This results in the formation of Milkdromeda (also known as Milkomeda).

22 billion years in the futurity is the earliest possible end of the Universe in the Large Rip scenario, bold a model of nighttime energy with w = −1.five.[21] [22]

False vacuum decay may occur in twenty to 30 billion years if the Higgs field is metastable.[23] [24] [25]

Coalescence of Local Group and galaxies outside the Local Supercluster are no longer accessible [edit]

10 11 (100 billion) to 10 12 (1 trillion) years

The galaxies in the Local Group, the cluster of galaxies which includes the Milky Way and the Andromeda Milky way, are gravitationally jump to each other. It is expected that between ten 11 (100 billion) and x 12 (1 trillion) years from now, their orbits will decay and the unabridged Local Group will merge into one large milky way.[v]

Assuming that dark energy continues to make the universe expand at an accelerating charge per unit, in virtually 150 billion years all galaxies outside the Local Supercluster volition pass behind the cosmological horizon. It will then be impossible for events in the Local Supercluster to bear upon other galaxies. Similarly, information technology will be impossible for events subsequently 150 billion years, as seen past observers in afar galaxies, to affect events in the Local Supercluster.[4] Nevertheless, an observer in the Local Supercluster will continue to see distant galaxies, but events they observe volition get exponentially more than redshifted as the milky way approaches the horizon until time in the distant galaxy seems to cease. The observer in the Local Supercluster never observes events after 150 billion years in their local time, and somewhen all light and background radiation lying outside the Local Supercluster will appear to blink out as light becomes and then redshifted that its wavelength has become longer than the physical diameter of the horizon.

Technically, it will take an infinitely long time for all causal interaction between the Local Supercluster and this low-cal to cease. Notwithstanding, due to the redshifting explained above, the low-cal will non necessarily be observed for an infinite corporeality of time, and after 150 billion years, no new causal interaction will be observed.

Therefore, after 150 billion years, intergalactic transportation and communication beyond the Local Supercluster becomes causally impossible.

Luminosities of galaxies brainstorm to diminish [edit]

8×10 eleven (800 billion) years

8×10 11 (800 billion) years from now, the luminosities of the different galaxies, approximately like until so to the current ones cheers to the increasing luminosity of the remaining stars as they age, will start to subtract, every bit the less massive crimson dwarf stars begin to die as white dwarfs.[26]

Galaxies outside the Local Supercluster are no longer detectable [edit]

2×10 12 (2 trillion) years

2×ten 12 (two trillion) years from now, all galaxies outside the Local Supercluster will exist redshifted to such an extent that fifty-fifty gamma rays they emit will have wavelengths longer than the size of the observable universe of the fourth dimension. Therefore, these galaxies volition no longer be detectable in whatever mode.[four]

Degenerate Era [edit]

From x xiv (100 trillion) to 10 xl (10 duodecillion) years

Past 10 14 (100 trillion) years from at present, star germination will end,[5] leaving all stellar objects in the form of degenerate remnants. If protons do not decay, stellar-mass objects will disappear more than slowly, making this era last longer.

Star formation ceases [edit]

1012–14 (one–100 trillion) years

By 10 14 (100 trillion) years from now, star germination will finish. This catamenia, known as the "Degenerate Era", will last until the degenerate remnants finally decay.[27] The least massive stars take the longest to frazzle their hydrogen fuel (see stellar evolution). Thus, the longest living stars in the universe are low-mass ruby dwarfs, with a mass of nearly 0.08 solar masses (Grand ☉), which have a lifetime of over 10 13 (10 trillion) years.[28] Coincidentally, this is comparable to the length of time over which star formation takes identify.[5] One time star formation ends and the least massive scarlet dwarfs frazzle their fuel, nuclear fusion will finish. The low-mass red dwarfs will cool and get black dwarfs.[17] The only objects remaining with more than planetary mass will be brown dwarfs, with mass less than 0.08M ☉, and degenerate remnants; white dwarfs, produced past stars with initial masses betwixt well-nigh 0.08 and 8 solar masses; and neutron stars and black holes, produced by stars with initial masses over viiiOne thousand ☉. Most of the mass of this collection, approximately 90%, will exist in the form of white dwarfs.[6] In the absence of whatsoever energy source, all of these formerly luminous bodies will absurd and become faint.

The universe will become extremely dark later the terminal stars burn out. Even so, there can still be occasional lite in the universe. One of the ways the universe can exist illuminated is if two carbon–oxygen white dwarfs with a combined mass of more than the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.four solar masses happen to merge. The resulting object volition and then undergo runaway thermonuclear fusion, producing a Type Ia supernova and dispelling the darkness of the Degenerate Era for a few weeks. Neutron stars could as well collide, forming even brighter supernovae and dispelling up to 6 solar masses of degenerate gas into the interstellar medium. The resulting matter from these supernovae could potentially create new stars.[29] [30] If the combined mass is not above the Chandrasekhar limit just is larger than the minimum mass to fuse carbon (about 0.9Thou ☉), a carbon star could be produced, with a lifetime of around x 6 (1 meg) years.[14] Also, if two helium white dwarfs with a combined mass of at least 0.3One thousand ☉ collide, a helium star may be produced, with a lifetime of a few hundred million years.[14] Finally brown dwarfs can form new stars colliding with each other to form a ruddy dwarf star, that can survive for x thirteen (10 trillion) years,[28] [29] or accreting gas at very tiresome rates from the remaining interstellar medium until they have enough mass to start hydrogen burning as scarlet dwarfs too. This process, at least on white dwarfs, could induce Type Ia supernovae too.[31]

Planets fall or are flung from orbits past a shut encounter with some other star [edit]

10 15 (1 quadrillion) years

Over time, the orbits of planets volition decay due to gravitational radiation, or planets will be ejected from their local systems past gravitational perturbations caused by encounters with another stellar remnant.[32]

Stellar remnants escape galaxies or fall into black holes [edit]

x 19 to 10 20 (ten to 100 quintillion) years

Over fourth dimension, objects in a galaxy exchange kinetic energy in a process chosen dynamical relaxation, making their velocity distribution approach the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution.[33] Dynamical relaxation can proceed either by shut encounters of ii stars or by less vehement but more frequent distant encounters.[34] In the case of a close encounter, two brown dwarfs or stellar remnants will laissez passer close to each other. When this happens, the trajectories of the objects involved in the close see change slightly, in such a way that their kinetic energies are more nearly equal than earlier. After a big number of encounters, then, lighter objects tend to gain speed while the heavier objects lose it.[14]

Because of dynamical relaxation, some objects will proceeds just enough energy to attain galactic escape velocity and depart the milky way, leaving behind a smaller, denser galaxy. Since encounters are more frequent in this denser galaxy, the process then accelerates. The end effect is that most objects (90% to 99%) are ejected from the galaxy, leaving a pocket-size fraction (perchance 1% to ten%) which fall into the central supermassive black hole.[5] [14] It has been suggested that the thing of the fallen remnants will form an accession disk around it that volition create a quasar, equally long equally plenty matter is present in that location.[35]

Possible ionization of matter [edit]

>10 23 years from now

In an expanding universe with decreasing density and non-zero cosmological abiding, matter density would reach naught, resulting in most matter except black dwarfs, neutron stars, black holes, and planets ionizing and dissipating at thermal equilibrium.[36]

Time to come with proton disuse [edit]

The following timeline assumes that protons practise decay.

Take a chance: 10 32 (100 nonillion) – 10 42 years (1 tredecillion)

The subsequent evolution of the universe depends on the possibility and charge per unit of proton decay. Experimental evidence shows that if the proton is unstable, information technology has a half-life of at least 10 35 years.[37] Some of the Thousand Unified theories (GUTs) predict long-term proton instability betwixt 10 32 and 10 38 years, with the upper leap on standard (non-supersymmetry) proton decay at i.4×ten 36 years and an overall upper limit maximum for any proton disuse (including supersymmetry models) at half-dozen×x 42 years.[38] [39] Recent research showing proton lifetime (if unstable) at or exceeding 10 36 –ten 37 yr range rules out simpler GUTs and most non-supersymmetry models.

Nucleons offset to decay [edit]

Neutrons bound into nuclei are also suspected to decay with a one-half-life comparable to that of protons. Planets (substellar objects) would decay in a unproblematic cascade process from heavier elements to pure hydrogen while radiating energy.[40]

If the proton does not decay at all, so stellar objects would still disappear, simply more slowly. See Future without proton decay below.

Shorter or longer proton half-lives volition accelerate or decelerate the process. This ways that later 10 twoscore years (the maximum proton one-half-life used past Adams & Laughlin (1997)), ane-half of all baryonic matter will take been converted into gamma ray photons and leptons through proton decay.

All nucleons decay [edit]

10 43 (10 tredecillion) years

Given our causeless half-life of the proton, nucleons (protons and jump neutrons) will accept undergone roughly 1,000 one-half-lives past the time the universe is ten 43 years old. This means that there will be roughly 0.five1,000 (approximately 10−301) as many nucleons; as there are an estimated ten 80 protons currently in the universe,[41] none will remain at the finish of the Degenerate Age. Effectively, all baryonic matter will accept been changed into photons and leptons. Some models predict the germination of stable positronium atoms with diameters greater than the observable universe'south current diameter (roughly half-dozen · 10 34 metres)[42] in x 98 years, and that these will in plow decay to gamma radiation in 10 176 years.[five] [6]

The supermassive blackness holes are all that remain of galaxies once all protons decay, merely even these giants are not immortal.

If protons decay on college-social club nuclear processes [edit]

Chance: 10 76 to x 220 years

If the proton does non decay co-ordinate to the theories described above, and so the Degenerate Era will last longer, and will overlap or surpass the Blackness Hole Era. On a time scale of 10 65 years solid affair is theorized to potentially rearrange its atoms and molecules via quantum tunneling, and may behave as liquid and get smooth spheres due to diffusion and gravity.[xiii] Degenerate stellar objects can potentially still experience proton decay, for example via processes involving the Adler–Bong–Jackiw anomaly, virtual black holes, or higher-dimension supersymmetry possibly with a half-life of under 10 220 years.[v]

>10 145 years from now

2018 estimate of Standard Model lifetime earlier plummet of a fake vacuum; 95% confidence interval is ten65 to 10725 years due in part to dubiety about the height quark mass.[43]

>10 200 years from at present

Although protons are stable in standard model physics, a quantum anomaly may be on the electroweak level, which tin can cause groups of baryons (protons and neutrons) to demolish into antileptons via the sphaleron transition.[44] Such baryon/lepton violations have a number of 3 and can only occur in multiples or groups of three baryons, which can restrict or prohibit such events. No experimental show of sphalerons has nevertheless been observed at depression energy levels, though they are believed to occur regularly at high energies and temperatures.

Black Pigsty Era [edit]

10 43 (10 tredecillion) years to approximately 10 100 (1 googol) years, up to 10 110 years for the largest supermassive blackness holes

After 10 43  years, blackness holes volition dominate the universe. They will slowly evaporate via Hawking radiation.[5] A blackness hole with a mass of around aneM ☉ volition vanish in around 2×10 64 years. Every bit the lifetime of a blackness hole is proportional to the cube of its mass, more massive black holes take longer to decay. A supermassive black hole with a mass of 10 11 (100 billion) Chiliad ☉ will evaporate in around 2×ten 93 years.[45]

The largest black holes in the universe are predicted to go on to grow. Larger black holes of upwards to 10 14 (100 trillion) M ☉ may form during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of 10 109 [46] to x 110 years.

Hawking radiations has a thermal spectrum. During nigh of a black hole'southward lifetime, the radiation has a depression temperature and is mainly in the form of massless particles such as photons and hypothetical gravitons. As the black pigsty's mass decreases, its temperature increases, becoming comparable to the Sun'due south past the time the black hole mass has decreased to 10 19 kilograms. The hole and so provides a temporary source of light during the general darkness of the Blackness Hole Era. During the last stages of its evaporation, a blackness hole volition emit not only massless particles, but also heavier particles, such every bit electrons, positrons, protons, and antiprotons.[14]

Dark Era and Photon Age [edit]

From ten 100 years (10 duotrigintillion years or 1 googol years)

After all the blackness holes have evaporated (and after all the ordinary matter made of protons has disintegrated, if protons are unstable), the universe volition be almost empty. Photons, baryons, neutrinos, electrons, and positrons volition fly from place to identify, hardly ever encountering each other. Gravitationally, the universe will be dominated by nighttime matter, electrons, and positrons (not protons).[47]

Past this era, with only very diffuse matter remaining, activity in the universe will have tailed off dramatically (compared with previous eras), with very low free energy levels and very large fourth dimension scales. Electrons and positrons globe-trotting through space will see one another and occasionally form positronium atoms. These structures are unstable, however, and their constituent particles must somewhen annihilate. Withal, about electrons and positrons will remain unbound.[48] Other low-level annihilation events will likewise accept place, albeit very slowly. The universe now reaches an extremely low-energy state.

Future without proton decay [edit]

If the protons practice not decay, stellar-mass objects will still become blackness holes, but more than slowly. The following timeline assumes that proton decay does non take place.

10 139 years from now

2018 estimate of Standard Model lifetime before collapse of a imitation vacuum; 95% confidence interval is ten58 to ten241 years due in function to uncertainty about the meridian quark mass.[43]

Degenerate Era [edit]

Matter decays into fe [edit]

10 1100 to ten 32000 years from now

In x 1500 years, cold fusion occurring via breakthrough tunneling should make the light nuclei in stellar-mass objects fuse into iron-56 nuclei (see isotopes of fe). Fission and blastoff particle emission should make heavy nuclei as well disuse to iron, leaving stellar-mass objects as common cold spheres of iron, called iron stars.[13] Before this happens, in some black dwarfs the procedure is expected to lower their Chandrasekhar limit resulting in a supernova in 10 1100 years. Non-degenerate silicon has been calculated to tunnel to iron in approximately 10 32000 years.[49]

Black Hole Era [edit]

Collapse of iron stars to black holes [edit]

1010 30 to 1010 105 years from now

Quantum tunneling should also plough large objects into blackness holes, which (on these timescales) will instantaneously evaporate into subatomic particles. Depending on the assumptions made, the time this takes to happen can be calculated every bit from 10x 26 years to 1010 76 years. Quantum tunneling may besides brand atomic number 26 stars collapse into neutron stars in around 10ten 76 years.[13]

Dark Era (without proton decay) [edit]

1010 105 to 1010 120 years from at present

With black holes having evaporated, all baryonic matter will have now decayed into subatomic particles (electrons, neutrons, protons, and quarks). The universe is now an almost pure vacuum (mayhap accompanied with the presence of a false vacuum). The expansion of the universe slowly cools it down to accented nix.[ citation needed ]

Beyond [edit]

Beyond 10 2500 years if proton disuse occurs, or tenten 76 years without proton decay

It is possible that a Big Rip event may occur far off into the future.[fifty] [51] This singularity would take place at a finite scale factor.

If the current vacuum state is a false vacuum, the vacuum may decay into a lower-free energy state.[52]

Presumably, extreme low-energy states imply that localized quantum events get major macroscopic phenomena rather than negligible microscopic events because the smallest perturbations make the biggest deviation in this era, so there is no telling what may happen to space or time. It is perceived that the laws of "macro-physics" will break downward, and the laws of breakthrough physics will prevail.[eight]

The universe could possibly avert eternal heat expiry through random quantum tunneling and quantum fluctuations, given the not-zero probability of producing a new Big Bang in roughly 101010 56 years.[53]

Over an infinite amount of time, in that location could be a spontaneous entropy decrease, by a Poincaré recurrence or through thermal fluctuations (see also fluctuation theorem).[54] [55] [56]

Massive black dwarfs could too potentially explode into supernovae later on up to ten32000  years, assuming protons practise non disuse.[57]

The possibilities higher up are based on a simple form of night energy. However, the physics of dark energy are still a very active surface area of inquiry, and the bodily class of nighttime free energy could be much more complex. For example, during aggrandizement nighttime free energy affected the universe very differently than it does today, so information technology is possible that dark energy could trigger another inflationary catamenia in the future. Until nighttime free energy is ameliorate understood, its possible furnishings are extremely difficult to predict or parametrize.

Graphical timeline [edit]

Logarithmic scale

Run across besides [edit]

  • Large Bounce – Hypothetical cosmological model for the origin of the known universe
  • Chronology of the universe – History and future of the universe
  • Cyclic model
  • Dyson'southward eternal intelligence – Hypothetical concept in astrophysics
  • Final anthropic principle
  • Graphical timeline of the Stelliferous Era
  • Graphical timeline of the Big Blindside – Logarithmic chronology of the consequence that began the Universe
  • Graphical timeline from Big Bang to Oestrus Expiry. This timeline uses the double-logarithmic calibration for comparison with the graphical timeline included in this article.
  • Graphical timeline of the universe – Visual timeline of the universe. This timeline uses the more intuitive linear fourth dimension, for comparison with this article.
  • Timeline of the Big Bang
  • Timeline of the far hereafter – Scientific projections regarding the far future
  • The Last Question – A brusque story by Isaac Asimov which considers the inevitable oncome of heat decease in the universe and how it may be reversed.
  • Ultimate fate of the universe – Theories nigh the cease of the universe

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    Since nosotros have causeless a maximum scale of gravitational binding – for instance, superclusters of galaxies – black hole formation somewhen comes to an end in our model, with masses of upward to x 14 M ☉ ... the timescale for blackness holes to radiate away all their free energy ranges ... to ten 109 years for blackness holes of up to 10 xiv M ☉.
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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe